Comparison of the Worldviews of Christianity and Islam
LIBERTY
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY
Comparison
of the Worldviews of Christianity and Islam
Submitted
to Dr. Bruce
Forrest
in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the completion of
Master
of Divinity Pastoral Counseling degree
Liberty
Baptist Theological Seminary
APOL
500 B07
Introduction
to Apologetics
by
Franklin
Mosley
October
21, 2016
Introduction
The worldview of
Islam differs greatly from the Christian worldview and is unacceptable as a
viable worldview. This paper will show some of the weaknesses of Islam and the
unconquerable strength found in the Christian worldview. The worldview of Islam
will be shown to offer little hope for meaning, morality and mortality of
mankind. Conversely it will show the Christian worldview as the one offering
simple yet profound answers to man’s basic questions of existence. It will
conclude by showing how one may share the Gospel of Jesus Christ and defend the
Christian worldview with Muslims.
A unifying
factor in all Islam is an absolute submission to
the Koran. The word Islam translates “submission”. The Five Pillars of
submission are core to the religion of Islam and to those Muslims who would be
found worthy of Paradise when they die. George Grant points out that:
anyone
who kept them [the Five Pillars of submission] was a faithful Umma, a true believer. Anyone who
did not keep them was a Kafir, an
infidel. Such a straightforward standard of works-righteousness made the life
of faith an extraordinarily simple, quantifiable, and mechanical process. In
other words, while Islam shared a number of important doctrines and dogmas with
the two other great Abrahamic faiths, its essential difference was that it
taught a means of salvation attainable and achievable by human agency. For a
good Muslim, a keeping of the Five Pillars can ensure salvation. There is no
need of redemption, just discipline.[1]
A Summary of the Worldview of Islam
Ultimate
Reality
Surrender
even by force to Allah. the former moon god, lies at the
very heart of Islam. The fundamental meaning of Islam is "surrender to
Allah". One who surrenders to Allah and recognizes Muhammad as Allah's
prophet is a Muslim. Arabic is the language of the first Muslims and of the Koran, and in
Arabic, the word for God is Allah, or "The God." Arabic-speaking
Christians also use "Allah" when speaking of God and praying to God.
Islam teaches that Allah is the same God worshipped by Jews and Christians. If this is true ask a Muslim to worship Yahweh or
Jesus. They will not. Do not confuse Allah with the God of Abraham. See the
test for being a child of Abraham in John 8:34-45.
The Muslim’s ultimate reality is far from
reassuring. They believe Allah created everything. They believe that all of
Allah’s communication to them is through the Prophet Muhammad. They believe
that an individual’s destiny is settled at birth. They also “understand the
world to be divided into what they termed “the abode of Islam” and that which
is not Muslim, namely “the abode of war”.[2]
The ultimate reality of Muslims is that they
are on earth to be slaves (Islam means submission) of Allah and do His will.
Allah’s will consists chiefly, though not exclusively, in seeing pagans and
infidels converted to Islam or become regulated to second class citizens, or be
killed. Included in the will of Allah is the observation of the Five Pillars of
Islam. If the Muslims are successful in doing Allah’s will they will enjoy a
sensuous life in Paradise. If they fail they will be forever tortured in Hell’s
fires.[3] The
ultimate reality for Muslims is that they do not know if they will attain
Paradise or Hell until they die.
Muhammad’s teaching on Judgement Day
works in combination with his teaching on destiny. The result is great
uncertainty for Muslims regarding their fate after death:
Allah’s Apostle, the true and truly inspired
said, As regards your creation, every one of you is collected in the womb of
his mother for the first forty days, and then he becomes a clot for another
forty days. Then Allah sends an angel to write four words: He writes his deeds,
time of his death, means of his livelihood, and whether he will be wretched or
blessed (in religion). Then the soul is breathed into his body.[4]
Source
of Authority
Islam requires belief in the perfect transmission
of truth from heaven to earth through the prophet Muhammad.[5]
Ultimate authority resides in the Koran. “Gleason Archer summarizes the Koran’s
teaching by noting first that “the author of the Koran firmly believed in the
full inspiration of the Old Testament and the Gospels of the New testament as
containing the authoritative Word of God….”[6]
However, there are discrepancies between Islam
and Christianity which center on major doctrines. The differences relate to the
doctrines of salvation, the nature of God and humans, just to name a few. To assure supremacy of the Koran over the
Bible a claim has been made that either the Bible was distorted in its original
revelation or it was altered after being received by man.
Some
of the writings which are sacred to Muslims indicate the existence of
confusion, or conflation of Gabriel and the Holy Spirit. The two terms are used
synonymously in Koran.[7] Claims are made by Muhammad that he received
the Koran, a miracle book. He calls it a miracle book because it was given to
him, one who was unlettered, and that therefore he would be unable to devise it
himself. It is difficult to separate the source of transmitting the revelations
received by Muhammad. He claimed that they were transmitted to him by the Holy
Spirit, and by Gabriel, and that they came to him while
in a cave near Hira.[8]
While in the cave for long periods at times he would experience symptoms like
those of an epileptic. He would tremble and foam at the mouth. Muhammad would sweat profusely.[9]
He would also turn red and breathe heavily.[10]
He argued with his Meccan opponents that the
Koran was his one miracle and that because of its import such a miracle was
enough. Skeptics, however, were full of charges that his “revelations” were
invented or borrowed [many from the Torah] with slight alterations from other
sources, and Muhammad was sensitive to these attacks. In the Koran itself we
find a defense, coming presumably from the lips of Allah, in support of
Muhammad’s integrity (though, of course, Muhammad is the one doing the
reporting of what Allah supposedly said to him-see 9:16; 10:39; 11:16; 52:34;
also 4:94;53:4).[11]
Muhammad received revelatory dreams while on Aisha’s bed.
Aisha, one of his thirteen wives, was betrothed to him when she was six years
old. The marriage was consummated when she was nine years old. Muhammad
claimed, “Divine Inspirations do
not come to me on any of the beds except that of Aisha”.[12] The Prophet
stated this more than once. “The Divine
inspiration never came to me while I was under the blanket of any woman amongst
you except her".[13] The revised version?
In addition to the Koran, there exists three
other foundational sources for ultimate authority. The Koran is uppermost. There is also Sunnah, which literally means “well-trodden path”. Usually
that means the example set by the Prophet. Ijma,
meaning “consensus” has to do with the consensus of Muslim scholars, and could
mean from within a certain community to the sage wisdom of the imams over the
ages. Ijthad, has to do with
independent reasoning and carriers with it implications of reasoning which
brings about a legal opinion.
Human
Being
Though created by God, man has no Godlikeness. God
breathing into man His (God’s) spirit is believed by some scholars to be the
faculty of God-like knowledge and will, which if rightly used gives man
superiority over all creation. However, this is not to make God into man, for God
is absolutely transcendent over all creation. Badru Kateregga points out the
difference between what Christians understand when Scripture tells us that God
created man in His image, and breathed into him the breath of life, and what
Islam understands what happened when God breathed into man His spirit. Muslims
believe this means, not that man was created in the image of God, but that man
received the faculties of knowledge, will and power of action which if “rightly
used gives man superiority over all creation”.[14]
Source of Morality
According to Ravi Zacharias,
Everything hinges on the character of the creator at the
center of the story. In the Islamic worldview, you have a God whose nature is
not essentially good and who defines morality by his commands.[15]
This is different than the Christian worldview of God and
moral law.
The dimensions of morality in
Islam are numerous, far-reaching and comprehensive. The Islamic morals deal
with the relationship between man and God, man and his fellow men, man and the
other elements and creatures of the universe, man and his innermost self. The
Muslim has to guard his external behavior and his manifest deeds, his words and
his thoughts, his feelings and intentions. In a general sense, his role is to
champion what is right and fight what is wrong, seek what is true and abandon
what is false, cherish what is beautiful and wholesome and avoid what is
indecent. Truth and virtue are his goal. Humbleness and simplicity, courtesy
and compassion, are his second nature. To him, arrogance and vanity, harshness
and indifference, are distasteful, offensive and displeasing to God.[16]
History and After
Life
Brigitte Gabriel
points out that the goal and plan is Islam is to conquer the world and create a
worldwide caliphate.[17]
Violent conquest
has been the method of spreading Islam since it began. Don Richardson writes
that Muhammad was involved personally in 47 battles. Richardson writes, “There
are at least one hundred nine identifiable war verses in the Koran. One out of
every fifty-five verses in the Koran is a war verse. War verses are scattered
throughout Muhammad’s chapters like blood splatter at a crime scene”.[18]
Richardson goes on to lead his readers through some of
the Koran’s verses which address self-defense and war. In the mind of Muslims,
as it is in the Koran, self-defense leads to retaliation, which leads to
fighting idolaters and their annihilation, and the enthronement of Allah as the
One True God.[19] The afterlife of faithful Muslims, according
to Islam, will be one in which the sexual cravings of faithful Muslim men,
especially those who have died as a martyr, will be forever fulfilled. However,
for the unbeliever, their afterlife will be spent in Hell’s Fires, a place of
unending torment.[20]
Does
it Explain what it Ought to Explain?
If a
worldview is to be used to address the most basic issue of mankind, namely
man’s problem and the solution to man’s problem, the worldview of Islam falls
short. The only tension in which man lives, according to Islam, is whether or
not one will do enough good deeds to outweigh the bad deeds of his life.
Whether or not one has accomplished that achievement is not known until after
death. Then Allah informs the man of His decision. Only martyrdom in a holy war
is said to guarantee admission into Paradise. However, that is contradicted by
the fact that, according to Islam before birth an angel writes the destiny of
each man which includes whether or not the man will be a true believer and
attain Paradise.
Abdullah (b. Mas'ud) reported that Allah's
Messenger (may peace be upon him) who is the most truthful (of the human
beings) and his being truthful (is a fact) said: Verily your creation is on
this wise. The constituents of one of you are collected for forty days in his
mother's womb in the form of blood, after which it becomes a clot of blood in
another period of forty days. Then it becomes a lump of flesh and forty days
later Allah sends His angel to it with instructions concerning four things, so
the angel writes down his livelihood, his death, his deeds, his fortune and
misfortune. By Him, besides Whom there is no god, that one amongst you acts
like the people deserving Paradise until between him and Paradise there remains
but the distance of a cubit, when suddenly the writing of destiny overcomes him
and he begins to act like the denizens of Hell and thus enters Hell, and
another one acts in the way of the denizens of Hell, until there remains between
him and Hell a distance of a cubit that the writing of destiny overcomes him
and then he begins to act like the people of Paradise and enters Paradise.[21]
Internal Logical Consistency
Internal logical
inconsistencies are found in the Quran and Hadith. Here are only a few.
Religion
Let there be no
compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from error.[22]
Unto you your religion and unto me my religion.[23] This
was written by Muhammad when he was in the minority.
Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the last
day, nor hold that which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger
[Muhammad], nor acknowledge the religion of truth [Islam], from among the
people of the book [Jews and Christians] until they paid the Jezia [special
taxes paid by the Jews and Christians who do not want to denounce their
religion] with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.[24]
And fight them on until there is no more sedition (literal translation) and
religion [Islam] becomes Allah’s in its entirety.[25] This
was said by Muhammad after he had an army.
Muhammad’s Polygamy
O Prophet! We have made lawful to thee thy wives to
whom thou has paid their dowers; and those whom they right hand possesses
out of the captives of war whom Allah has assigned to thee; and daughters of thy
paternal uncles and aunts, who migrated with thee; and any believing woman who
gives herself to the prophet if the Prophet wishes to wed to her-this only for
thee, and not for the believers [at large]; We know what We have appointed for
them as to their wives and the captives whom their rights hands posses-in order
that there be no difficulty for thee. And Allah is Oft Forgiving, Most
Merciful.[26]
It is not lawful for thee [to marry
more] women after this, nor to change them for [other] wives even though their
beauty attract thee, except any thy right hand should possess [as handmaidens]:
and Allah doth watch over all.[27]
The Quran in Arabic
“We have made it a Quran in Arabic that ye may be able to
understand”.[28]
This verse indicates that the Quran
is exclusively for the Arabic speaking people. It could not be a miracle,
because people of other tongues cannot even read it. He it is who has sent down
to thee the book [the Quran]...no one knows its true meaning except Allah.[29]
Coherence
In the Quran we read about
battles, about “terrific onslaughts”[30], and about “striking terror into the hearts of
enemies”[31] This
fits the image of God as one who loves some people and does not love others.
There is coherence in Islam in this instance. Ravi Zacharias writes, “that a coherent worldview must be able to satisfactorily answer four
questions: that of origin, meaning of life, morality and destiny.[32]
Following
Zacharias’ line of thought, the four questions are asked of Islam.
Does Islam
Explain the Origin of the Universe?
“And in the creation of yourselves, and the
fact that animals are scattered (through the earth), are signs for those of
assured faith. And in the alternation of night and day, and that fact that
Allah sends down sustenance from the sky, and revives therewith the earth after
its death, and in the change of the winds, are signs for those who are
wise".[33]
The meaning of life according
to Islam
I have not created the jinn and mankind
except to worship me. I do not want from them any sustenance and I do not want
(from them) that they feed me. Indeed Allah is the Provider, the possessor of
power and strength.[34]
Morality in
Islam
How often
is textual proof required to show a lack of morality? Though there are abundant
proof texts in the Quran, for the sake of space I will list only one instance
from the Quran itself which reflects the lack of morality and incoherence in
Islam. Quran 23:33; “If anyone [i.e., slave owner] compels them [forces
chastity choosing slave girls to be prostitutes], God will be forgiving and
merciful to them”.[35]
Destiny
Destiny of
each man is decided at birth by an angel and it is unalterable.
Islam fails
the test Zacharias presents in two of four areas.
Factual Adequacy
The essential factual
claims of Islam cannot be empirically, scientifically or historically proven
because all of their teachings revolve around the revelations to Muhammad.
These teachings have been shown throughout this paper to be inconsistent and
incoherent. In stark contrast, the Holy Scriptures of Christianity consist of
the writings of forty authors which were written over a period of sixteen
hundred years.
Islam denies the
fact the Jesus is Deity. “So we simply cannot say that Islam has produced great
civilizations and continues to appeal to people globally, therefore, it must be
true. If Islam fails any of the previous five tests (such as factual adequacy
with respect to the identity of Jesus), its cultural success-such as it
is-cannot count decisively in its favor”.[36] They fail the
criterion of factual adequacy.
Radical ad hoc Readjustment
“When a world
view is faced with potentially defeating counterevidence, an adherent may
readjust its core claims to accommodate the evidence against it”.[37] When the early claim that the Torah, Psalms and the
Gospels conflicted with some of the revelations to Muhammad, readjustments were
made and “revelations” were received that either the original writings of
Scripture had not been transmitted correctly or they had been altered by
Christians during the first few hundred years of the church.
The evaluation of worldviews uses
the criteria of Groothuis to evaluate the Christian worldview.
Does it explain what
it should?
The Christian worldview offers
meaning, morality, and mortality to mankind. It does so by showing that one of
the major purposes of man is that of relationship. Man is called to have
relations with fellowman and God. Morality is reflected in the morality of a
loving, merciful God. Mortality is unique in the Christian worldview because it
delineates that it is God’s desire to have mankind spend eternity with Him and
enjoy his loving kindness forever.
Internal Logical Consistency
There are no internal logical
inconsistences which invalidate the Christian worldview by contradicting each
other. As an example, creation, the fall, redemption, and an afterlife in
heaven, are all consistent.
Factual Adequacy
The claims of the Bible are
verifiable through extra-biblical sources. An example of factual adequacy is,
“New Testament affirms that Jesus did claim and Christianity confesses the
deity of Christ at the very center of its worldview”.[38]
Existential
Viability
Existentialism
addresses the inner relativity of the human being. The Christian worldview
affirms that life has meaning, death is not the end. Therefore one can live
joyfully and hopefully.[39]
The Christian worldview is not philosophically hypocritical.
A Plan to Share and
Defend the Christian Worldview
to one Holding the Muslim Worldview
Truth
is the only defense against falsity. However, truth must be presented
logically, thoroughly, and systematically, and graciously.
Men despise religion. They hate it and are afraid
it may be true. The cure for this is first to show that religion is not
contrary to reason, but worthy of reverence and respect. Next make it
attractive, make good men wish it were true, and then show that it is.[40]
Abdu Murray, a
Christian convert from Islam says, “The things you wish were true in the world
are true in the Christian worldview.” This positive mindset
is one of the planks in the foundation we stand on to motivate and encourage
one to be open to sharing the Gospel with Muslims and any other non-Christian.
Christians have the answers to the world’s problems and to the problems of man,
not within ourselves, but in Jesus Christ. That fact alone should be motivation
to equip oneself to competently and enthusiastically evangelize. It is inborn within man to seek truth. Man
has a longing and that longing is always to have a redeemer, whether it can be
articulated in those words or not. C. S. Lewis has famously said, “If you look for truth, you may find
comfort in the end; if you look for comfort you will not get either comfort or
truth only soft soap and wishful thinking to begin, and in the end, despair”.[41]
In planning to share the Christian
worldview with a non-Christian, whether Muslim or not, one of the most
important attitudes to guard against is that of judgement or condemnation from
us on the person with whom we are sharing, or their religion, or lack of
religion. A strong understanding of our worldview, and a certainty that it is biblically
substantiated is mandatory.
It is necessary that one understand
the audience being addressed, regardless of whether the audience consists of
one person or more people. Different audiences come from different backgrounds
and have different perspectives. This is true of the Muslim, too. They have
perspectives which have been formulated over centuries of influence.
Specifically, when addressing a
Muslim, there are several points to be prepared to discuss. One of the hardest
facts for them to accept is the deity of Christ. How can a man be God?
Connected with that fact is the reality that Jesus actually did die on the
cross and rose again back to life three days later. Islam claims to accept the
Gospels as from God, or Allah in their case. The story of Jesus in the Gospels
is a strong witness to the reality of Jesus deity and crucifixion and
resurrection. In Islam one will not find a redeemer. There is no mention of
forgiveness. There is no mention of a mediator between God and man. The
doctrine of justification is foreign to Islam and Muslims. Sin and misdeeds are
not foreign to a Muslim and one could readily use Romans 3:23 to show that
everyone has in fact sinned and is in need of a Savior. The fact of a God, who
is loving and has provided a way for man to be reconciled to God is a fact
that, if received, will bring comfort to a Muslim. The Muslim may not be able
to understand how the death of a man two-thousand years ago can achieve
forgiveness of sins. Another Christian doctrine which will be very difficult
for a Muslim to embrace is the doctrine of the Trinity. Be patient. Avoid
Christian jargon, at least initially. Be prayerful. Trust the Holy Spirit.
Jesus was a master teacher and he was
a wonderful relationship builder. One can learn from his example. The way He
combated error was by presenting truth. How does one build a relationship
strong enough to gain the trust of anyone and share a truth which will probably
be offensive? One way is to invest time with the one God has led us to. Invite
them and their family into your home. Eventually invite them into your church.
Perhaps the first event you could share with them at your church is some sort
of family fellowship. Gain their trust by being truly concerned about them, not
just working to win a convert or an argument.
Americans tend to want to close the
deal. This is not necessarily a bad thing but perhaps it is a mentality to be
avoided in reaching out to a Muslim with the Gospel of Christ. The Christian’s
role is not to close the deal, or see them saved. The Christian’s responsibility
is to reasonably present the Gospel, which may include answering questions, and
asking questions. It is the responsibility, solely, of the Holy Spirit to
illumine the human mind to receive the things of the Spirit. “The natural
person does not accept the things of the Spirit of God, for they are folly to
him, and he is not able to understand [see] them because they are spiritually
discerned” (1 Corinthians 2:14, ES V).
Trust Him to do His work. A wonderful verse to pray for
Muslims is, “Open my eyes, that I may behold the wondrous things out of your
law” (Psalms 119:19, KJV). Trusting Him to do his work does not alleviate the
Christian’s responsibility to do his or her work. That will always include
proper preparation of knowing one’s audience and understanding their worldview.
It will always include an adequate understand of our faith, the Scripture, and
the Christian worldview, as well.
Ephesians 6:4 is a verse addressed directly to fathers. However,
the truth is clearly transferable to anyone who would engage in evangelism.
“…take them by the hand and led them in the way of the Master” (Ephesians 6:4;
The Message).
Bibliography
Elass, Mateen. Understanding the Koran: A Quick Christian
Guide to the Muslim Holy Book. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004.
Gabriel, Brigitte. Because
They Hate (YouTube). Accessed October 18, 2016. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2361383274896945386.
Geisler, Norman L., and Abdul Saleeb. Answering Islam: The
Crescent in Light of the Cross. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1993.
Grant, George. (2002). The Blood of the Moon:
Understanding the historic struggle between Islam and Western civilization.
Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson.
Groothuis, Douglas R. Christian
Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith. Downers Grove, IL:
IVP Academic, 2011. J
Kateregga, Badru D. Islam and Christianity: A Muslim and a Christian in Dialogue. Grand
Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1981.
Keller, Tim. “Pascal’s Method for Presenting the Christian Faith." Accessed October 21, 2016.https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/pascals-method-for-presenting-the-christian-faith.
Lewis, C. S.
(1898-1963).
Richardson,
Don. Secrets of the Koran, Chapter 3,
paragraphs 2 and 3, Kindle,
Smith, Jane
I. The Oxford History of Islam (New York, Oxford University Press, 1999.
Volf, Miroslav. Allah: A Christian
Response. New York: HarperOne, 2012.
Zacharias,
Ravi. Just Thinking. (YouTube). Accessed October 10, 2016. http://rzim.org/just-thinking/is-anything-wrong/.
[1] Grant, George. (2002). The Blood of the Moon:
Understanding the historic struggle between Islam and Western civilization.
Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. 43.
[2] Jane I Smith, The Oxford History of Islam (New York, Oxford University Press,
1999) 324.
[3] The Correct
Books of Muslim, bk. 30,
no.5836. Jesus and Muhammad, page 92.
[4] The
Correct Books of Muslim, bk. 30, no.5836. Jesus and Muhammad, page 91.
[5] Elass, Mateen. Understanding the Koran: A Quick Christian
Guide to the Muslim Holy Book. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004.31.
[7] Sura 16:104; 26:193.
[8] Koran, Sura, 96:1-3; 74:1-5.
[11] Elass, Mateen. Understanding the Koran: A Quick Christian
Guide to the Muslim Holy Book. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004. 26, 27.
[12] Sahih Bukhari Volume 3, Book 47, Number 755.
[13] Sahih Bukhari Volume 5, Book 57, Hadith 119.
[14] Kateregga, Badru D. Islam and Christianity: A Muslim and a
Christian in Dialogue. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
1981. P 39M
[15]
Zacharias, Ravi. Just Thinking. (YouTube). Accessed October 10, 2016. http://rzim.org/just-thinking/is-anything-wrong/.
[16] http://www.islamanswering.com/subpage.php?s=article&aid=1408.
[17] . Gabriel, Brigitte. Because They Hate (YouTube). Accessed October 18, 2016. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2361383274896945386.
[18] Richardson, Don. Secrets of the Koran, Kindle, Chapter 3, paragraphs
2 and 3.
[19]
Ibid.,
[20] Koran: Sura 38:51; 44:54; 55:55-74.
[24] Surat Al-Tawbah 9:29.
[25] Surat Al-Anfal 8:39.
[26] Surat Al-Ahzab 33:50.
[27] Surat Al-Ahzab 33:52.
[28] Surat Az-Zukhruf 43:3.
[29] Surat Al-Imran 3:7.
[30] Al ‘Imran, 3:125.
[31] (Al Anfal, 8:60).
[32]Zacharias,
Ravi. Just Thinking. (YouTube). Zacharias, Ravi. Just Thinking. (YouTube).
Accessed October 18, 2016. http://rzim.org/just-thinking/is-anything-wrong/.
[33]
Koran 45:3-5.
[34] . Surah Adh-Dhariyat 51: verses 56-58.
[35] Richardson, Don. Chapter 5, Polygamy and the
prophet, section Women as sex objects, paragraph 3.
[36] Groothuis, Douglas R. Christian Apologetics: A
Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic,
2011. 57.
[37] Ibid.,
57.
[38] Groothuis 55.
[39]
Ibid., 60.
[40] Keller, Tim. “Pascal’s Method for Presenting the
Christian Faith."
Accessed October 21, 2016.https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/pascals-method-for-presenting-the-christian-faith.
[41] Lewis, C. S. (1898-1963).
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